No longer is online learning an uncertainty. This is reflected in the increase of online enrollments in higher education. Institutions frequently cite increased access to education for marginalized populations as a reason for the move. However, we must question whether marginalized populations’ needs are being considered in curriculum development.
Introduction
More and more universities are embracing distance education as a viable modality for delivering educational opportunities. Seaman, Allen, and Seaman (2018) reported yet again that the increase of online learning enrollments within higher education is continuing to grow compared to the declining number of higher education students enrolled overall. Despite the growth of this modality, the foundations of online learning are still not fully understood by all faculty, staff, and administration that are taking part in distance education endeavors. Additionally, there is limited research in regard to online education and the effects on minority students. Regardless of the limited research, online education is often cited as a way to provide more access to diverse and marginalized populations (Enger, 2006). This need is also reflected in the number of Hispanic Serving Institutions (HSIs) who were funded by the Title V - Promoting Postbaccalaureate Opportunities for Hispanic Americans (PPOHA) grant , through the years 2009, 2010, and 2014, in which 26 of the 62 awardees mentioned enhancing their online education as an effort to improve Hispanic student outcomes. Another important aspect to take into consideration is the digital divide and the reported number of individuals with lower socioeconomic statuses that do not have access to a desktop or high-speed internet in their homes.
Literature Review
Seaman, Allen, and Seaman’s (2018) annual report on online learning utilized data collected from the U.S. Department of Education’s National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES) Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS). The authors of the annual report on online learning stated that online learning or distance education students “grew by 5.6% from Fall 2015 to Fall 2016 to reach 6,359,121 who are taking at least one distance course, representing 31.6% of all students (Seaman, Allen, & Seaman, 2018, p.3).” According to the U.S. Department of Education, distance education is defined as “education that uses one or more technologies to deliver instruction to students who are separated from the instructor and to support regular and substantive interaction between the students and the instructor synchronously or asynchronously.” Moreover, IPEDS collects data on distance education enrollments on the following two categories: “exclusively” (all enrollments are through online courses) or “some but not all”(enrollment consists of a mix of online and on-campus courses) distance education.
Due to the affordances that distance education such as flexibility, convenience, or even affordability, it is often cited that universities can expand their reach to a more diverse population of students (Anderson, 2008; Enger, 2006; Richardson, 2012). Nonetheless, “instructional design of online learning has largely ignored culture in the creation of online learning environments (Clem, 2004, p. 183).” Additionally, in 2016, only 0.7% of online students were international students (Seaman, Allen, & Seaman, 2018). Clinefelter and Aslanian (2017) also reported that Hispanic students only comprised 10% of online undergraduates and 8% of online graduates in 2017. While racial disparities are noted in the use of technology and access to the internet, at the moment this level of information is not collected and connected to distance education numbers in IPEDs. Milman, Posey, Pintz, Wright, and Zhou (2015) observed differences in perceptions of institutional support and resources between white and nonwhite online students. For example, non-white students rated career counseling, counseling services, and fellow student buddies with higher levels of importance compared to white students. Overall, in their study non-white online students tended to rate supports and resources with higher levels of importance compared to their white counterparts.
In a study conducted by Angiello (2002) focusing on the enrollment and success of Hispanics in online courses, Hispanics represented only 14% of enrollment in online courses while they comprised 21.5% of traditional enrollments. Also important to note, while white students were 13.6% less successful in online compared to face-to-face courses, Hispanic students were 24.8% less successful in online courses. The difference in success rates between white and Hispanic students in face-to-face courses were 4.3% and yet in online courses, the difference between the two groups was 15.5%. Lastly, Angiello (2002) stated a possible reason for the difference was due to the digital divide and that Hispanic students did not have the same amount of experience with technology to be successful.
Digital Divide
In 2017, advancing digital equity, particularly access to broadband internet, was mentioned for the first time in the NMC Horizon Report as a significant challenge impeding higher education technology adoption. While advancements have been made in this regard, “a lack of high-speed internet, disproportionate access based on socioeconomic status and gender, and recent legislative decisions have hampered progress (p. 30).” Moreover, the authors stated that this challenge directly impacts education due to the fact online learning is possible with access to high-speed internet. Richardson (2012) reiterated that “structural inequalities tend to impair the educational aspirations and the educational achievement of people from ethnic minorities (p. 386).”
Furthermore, in terms of increased access to a diverse population or underserved group, the digital divide is an important fact to consider. According to Fairlie (2017), the digital divide has not been bridged and the inequity of access to the internet and technology is still ever more apparent. Fairlie (2017) pointed out that although the racial disparities in smartphone use were relatively small, racial disparities in overall use of the internet (from all devices) remained large. More specifically, 31% of African-Americans and 34% of Latinos do not utilize or access the Internet on a smartphone, computer, tablet or any other device (Fairlie, 2017).
Title V PPOHA and Online Education
Currently, according to the U.S. Census Bureau (2017), educational attainment for Hispanic students is lower compared to other demographic groups. To help bridge the disparity, the U.S. Higher Education Act - Title V was passed to establish Hispanic-Serving Institutions (HSI). An HSI is an institution in higher education that serves to increase the educational attainment of Hispanic students (Vela & Gutierrez, 2017). Other organizations such as the Hispanic Association of Colleges and Universities (HACU) has found that in 2017, only 17.2% of Hispanic students hold a bachelors and 5% have an advanced degree as opposed to non-Hispanic whites in which 38.1% hold a bachelors and 14.3% hold an advanced degree (U.S. Hispanic Association of College and Universities [HACU], 2018). The need has been identified and the government's response is establishing HSI’s in which they provide funding for programs aimed at low-income and Hispanic students such as: Laboratory equipment, renovation of instructional facilities, faculty development, production and expansion of online learning courses, production of tutoring and counseling programs amongst a number of other programs and activities (DOE. 2016a). HSI’s can apply for funding under the Title V - Promoting Postbaccalaureate Opportunities for Hispanic Americans (PPOHA) program. The purpose of this program is to 1) expand postbaccalaureate educational opportunities and educational attainment of Hispanic students, and 2) expand postbaccalaureate academic offerings and enhance the program quality in the institutions of higher education while also helping low-income and Hispanic students complete postsecondary degrees (DOE. 2016a.) We are currently looking at HSI’s that have been funded by PPOHA through the years 2009, 2010 and 2014 in which a total of 62 HSI’s were awarded funds for programs and activities that aided in educational attainment in Hispanic students; twenty-six of those awardees mentioned expanding online curriculum or distance learning. Initial findings through IPEDS show that the 26 HSI’s that mentioned implementing online curriculum through the years 2009-2016 showed a dramatic increase through 2009-2014 with an 11.12% increase in Hispanic students. IPEDS also shows us that the number of Undergraduate students who take online courses has increased exponentially through 2012-2016 with a 575.51% increase. Though the numbers for students who take strictly online courses for graduate and undergraduate courses show little to no change throughout the years measured (National Center for Education Statistics, 2018). This data shows that although online learning is still in its infancy, the opportunity for Hispanic students to continue their education through online learning is a definite option.
Conclusion
With the growing numbers in online education within higher education, the increasing number of minority students attending college, and upward numbers of smartphone owners, mobile access to institutional support services and resources may contribute to the success of online students and those that may be traditionally underserved (Seaman, Allen, & Seaman, 2018; Fairlie, 2017). Mirroring the sentiment of Angiello (2002), the basis of attainment and achievement in online learning should not depend on racial/ethnic differences and online courses or programs should not disadvantage any particular group. Moreover, “conscientious instructors must question whether we are setting Hispanics up for failure through our course design (Angiello, 2002, p. 5).” With Hispanics predicted to become 24% of the nation’s population by 2065 (Pew Research, 2017), it is important for institutions to be aware of the needs of students from this demographic and include this information in strategic plans for online education, particularly if increased access for these marginalized groups are cited as a reason for the implementation of online education.